The second in a three-part series of blog posts, this post reviews the traditional role of sustainability in climate change activities. Part 3 will connect the dots between the adaptation and mitigation strategies outlined in parts 1 and 2.
The following mitigation activities fall within the traditional role of environmental sustainability:
1. Reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from major emitters such as power plants, landfills, refineries, cement production facilities, buildings, and transportation.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
The most direct way to slow global warming will be to reduce the amount of GHG emitted to the atmosphere by human activities. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report released in 2007, the rising average temperatures associated with climate change have already affected the environment, compromising biodiversity and threatening natural resources such as access to fresh water.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. EPA: On September 30, 2009, the U.S. EPA proposed instituting mandatory federal emission limits for the largest emitters: facilities emitting >25,000 tons of GHG annually. The EPA estimates that this program will address 70% of national GHG emissions from stationary sources. (link)
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 1, “Inventory global warming emissions in City operations and in the community, set reduction targets and create an action plan.” (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32) Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006: Targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. (link)
Targeted sectors include:
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Agriculture: targeted sources of GHG emissions include manure, fertilizer, offroad equipment
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High Global Warming Potential (GWP): targets sources emitting GHGs with higher climate impact than CO2. For example, consumer products, fire protection systems, insulating foams, and a variety of refrigerants (mobile air conditioning, residential refrigeration, stationary refrigerants, etc.)
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Industry and Manufacturing: Energy efficiency and GHG emissions audit for facilities emitting >0.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MMTCO2E) annually.The currently targeted industries are semiconductors, cement, and glass manufacturing.
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Oil & Gas Refining: activities include establishing a low carbon fuel standard, surveying oil and natural gas emissions from 2007 to develop an inventory baseline for the industry, and identifying mitigation strategies for natural gas transmission/distribution and refineries.
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Waste Management/Recycling: targets areas such as commercial recycling, reducing organics in the waste stream, methane emissions from landfills, and anaerobic digestion.
California Cap-and-Trade Program: This program was created to speed compliance with CA AB32. AB32 requires that it launch by January 2011. It is being developed in coordination with the Western Climate Initiative with the goal of contributing to a regional cap-and-trade program. (link)
The November 2009 Preliminary Draft Regulation proposes covering the following sectors:
By 2012: electricity generation (including imports) and industrial sources/processes ≥ 25,000 metric tons of CO2 equivalents (MTCO2e)
By 2015: industrial fuel combustion at facilities with emissions < 25,000 MTCO2e and transportation fuels
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan: Meet the Kyoto Protocol targets by reducing GHG emissions to 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. The plan targets five strategies: energy efficient buildings, clean and renewable energy sources, improved transportation options, reduced waste and industrial pollution, and adaptation. (link)
New Hampshire
Climate Action Plan 2009: Meet the Kyoto Protocol targets by reducing GHG emissions to 80% below 1990 levels by 2050. The plan targets the following sectors: buildings, renewable energy generation, transportation, and carbon sequestration through protection of natural resources. (link)
New York City
plaNYC 2007: Reduce GHG emissions by > 30% by 2030 by avoiding sprawl, investing in clean power, reducing building energy consumption, and enhancing sustainable transportation options. (link)
Seattle
Seattle Action Plan 2006: Targets citywide compliance with the Kyoto Protocol target – a 7% reduction in GHG emissions over 1990 levels by 2012 and an 80% reduction by 2050. If Seattle maintains its 2008 levels, it will meet the 2012 goal. Over 60% of Seattle’s GHG emissions can be linked to transportation emissions, leading it to focus on increasing vehicle efficiency and expanding transportation options. (link)
2. Increase renewable energy generation.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
Renewable energy reduces the need to rely on fossil fuels for energy production, avoiding the release of GHG emissions such as CO2, CH4 (methane), and N2O (nitrous oxide). For additional information, see the U.S. EPA Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks and Union of Concerned Scientists.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 3, “Increase the use of clean, alternative energy.” (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32) Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006: Targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. (link)
Targeted sectors include:
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Renewable Portfolio Standard: California electric corporations must meet a 20% renewable energy procurement requirement by 2010.
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan, Renewable Energy Sources mitigation strategy: Targets using renewable energy procurement to reduce total electricity emissions by 20%, increasing distributed generation and combined heat and power to increase the efficiency of electricity generation, and doubling residential renewable energy generation. (link)
New Hampshire
Renewable Energy Act 2007: Requires electricity suppliers in New Hampshire to procure ≥ 25% of total electricity from renewable sources by 2025. (link)
Participation in the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), which has capped GHG emissions and will reduce total emissions from the power sector by 10% by 2018. (link)
New York City
plaNYC 2007: Promotion of renewable power sources is one of the City’s strategies to meet its goal of reducing global warming emissions by > 30% by 2030. (link)
Seattle
Seattle Action Plan 2006: 90% of Seattle’s electricity is generated by carbon-neutral hydroelectric dams. GHG emissions from the remaining 10% are offset through the purchase of carbon-offset certificates. The Action Plan targets maintaining electricity production at the municipally-owned Seattle City Lights at zero net GHG emissions. Increased load will be accommodated through conservation and renewable energy sources. Any additional emissions will be offset by purchasing carbon offset certificates. (link)
3. Implement carbon sequestration strategies, such as: afforestation/reforestation and conservation agricultural practices.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
Vegetation consumes CO2 through photosenthesis. It is therefore a possible mitigation strategy – a way to offset some of the GHGs emitted to the atmosphere each year. Natural vegetation also enhances environmental sustainability by promoting biodiversity, reducing erosion and stormwater contamination, and lowering surrounding temperatures through evapotranspiration. For additional information about carbon sequestration, visit the U.S. EPA website.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 11, “Maintain healthy urban forests; promote tree planting to increase shading and to absorb CO2.” (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32) Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006: Targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. (link)
Current activities in the Forestry sector include:
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Developing Forest GHG accounting protocols
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Forest Emissions Inventory.
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan, Energy Efficient Buildings mitigation strategy: Target installation of vegetated/living roofs on 6,000 buildings, and plant one million trees. (link)
New Hampshire
Climate Action Plan 2009: 84% of New Hampshire’s landscape is forested, providing a significant source of potential carbon sequestration capacity. The Action Plan recommends actions that will offer a net GHG emission reduction state-wide, including: investing in forested areas to avoid land conversion (AFW 1.2), protecting agricultural land (AFW 1.1.3), promoting durable wood products (AFW 1.3) and waste reduction (AFW 3.1), and optimizing regional use of biomass for electricity and heating (AFW 2.2). (link)
New York City
MillionTreesNYC: A plaNYC initiative to plant one million new trees in New York City within ten years. The program’s research arm identified calculating the sequestration benefits of the program as a major research goal at its 2009 workshop. (link)
Seattle
Seattle Green Partnership: This public-private venture is committed to restoring 2,500 acres of forested city park lands by 2025, adding 649,000 trees citywide. A 1999 study estimated that Seattle had lost 46% of its heavy tree cover and 67% of its medium tree cover from 1972 to 1996, resulting in a cost of $1.3 million per year in stormwater infrastructure and $226,000 per year in health costs associated with air pollution. Reforestation will potentially benefit the city both by removing CO2 and other pollutants from the air and by providing a source of revenue through the generation of carbon offset credits. Seattle Green Partnership estimates that each acre of conifer forest it restores will provide the City with $195,000 worth of carbon sequestration (at $6 per ton of CO2e). (link)
4. Build highly energy and water efficient, zero net energy developments.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
According to the U.S. EPA, the building sector (industrial, commercial, and residential) accounted for 19.5% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2007. Developments that produce enough renewable energy on-site to contribute to the overall grid’s power supply an equal or greater amount of electricity as their demand are called “zero net energy.” This strategy takes advantage of energy and water efficient building design, multi-modal transportation planning, on-site renewable energy sources, and smart grid technology to reduce the electrical load on fossil fuel sources of power generation.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 2, “Adopt and enforce land-use policies that reduce sprawl, preserve open space, and create compact, walkable urban communities.” (link)
Austin
Austin Climate Protection Plan 2007: Upgrade building code to require: all new single-family homes to be constructed zero-net energy capable by 2015; 75% increased energy efficiency in all non-residential new construction by 2015; point of sale disclosure of opportunities for energy efficiency retrofits and upgrades. (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32) Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006: Targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. (link)
Current activities in the Local Initiatives and Land Use sector include:
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Encouraging local government and regional actions
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Research into low carbon options for land use development
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Establishing urban forest GHG reporting protocols.
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan Energy Efficient Buildings mitigation strategies: 70% of Chicago’s GHG emissions can be linked to the building sector. Efficiency mitigation strategies include: 30% energy reduction in both new and existing buildings, water efficiency measures, and promotion of vegetated/living roofs. (link)
New Hampshire
Climate Action Plan 2009: Building heating and electricity use account for over 60% of energy use in New Hampshire. Recommendations targeting low-GHG emitting developments include: maximizing efficiency in new (RCI 1.1) and existing (RCI 1.2) buildings; updating energy codes (RCI 1.4); preserving the existing building stock (RCI 1.8); and, assessing fees, incentives and zoning rules to promote low-GHG developments (TLU 2.C.1, TLU 2.C2). (link)
Seattle
Seattle Action Plan 2006: Buildings and equipment accounted for 21% of Seattle’s GHG emissions in 2008. The majority of building emissions are due to the use of natural gas for heating, appliances, and hot water, because Seattle electricity is delivered to customers at net zero emissions. Building and transportation codes have been targeted to increase density and encourage energy and water efficiency while also supporting access to multiple modes of transportation. (link)
Action #1: Significantly Increase the Supply of Frequent, Reliable and Convenient Public Transportation
Action #2: Significantly Expand Bicycling and Pedestrian Infrastructure
Action #5: Expand Efforts to Create Compact, Green Urban Neighborhoods
Action #10: Substantially Increase Natural Gas Conservation
Action #11: Strengthen the State Residential Energy Code
5. Reduce the urban heat island effect.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
The urban heat island (UHI) effect refers to the tendency for urban areas with large swathes of impermeable surfaces to experience higher temperatures than rural areas. The higher temperatures can lead to more intensive use of air conditioning during the summer, intensified air pollution and GHG emissions, and impaired water quality. For more information about UHI, visit the U.S. EPA website.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 11, “Maintain healthy urban forests; promote tree planting to increase shading and to absorb CO2.” (link)
Austin
Austin NeighborWoods Program offers free tree planting along rights of way to build a tree canopy shading Austin’s streets. Over 4,000 trees are planted each year through the program. (link)
Austin Parks and Recreation Department Urban Forestry Program: Targets planting ≥ 1,000 trees per year. (link)
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan, Energy Efficient Buildings mitigation strategy: Target installation of vegetated/living roofs on 6,000 buildings, and plant one million trees. (link)
New York City
New York City Regional Heat Island Initiative: A study sponsored by the New York State Energy and Research Authority (NYSERDA) calculated the relative effectiveness of existing UHI mitigation strategies in New York City. All of the following strategies were found to reduce ambient temperature, however the most effective strategy would combine tree planting along streets and in open spaces with installing vegetated/living roofs throughout the city. (link)
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Urban forestry
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Light surfaces (roofs, sidewalks, streets)
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Vegetated/Living roofs
6. Promote low carbon, multi-modal transportation options.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
According to the U.S. EPA, the transportation sector accounted for 26.3% of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2007. Transportation infrastructure such as roads and railways can fragment wildlife habitats. Oil and other vehicle pollutants deposited on roadways are washed into the storm sewer and surrounding vegetation during rain events, compromising water quality. Road design is also often a determining factor in the success of sustainable developments. Pedestrian-friendly street widths and block sizes, in addition to the availability of contiguous sidewalks and multiple forms of alternative transportation can help raise the occupant density necessary to support the economic success of mixed-use, sustainable developments.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 3, “Promote transportation options such as bicycle trails, commute trip reduction programs, incentives for car pooling and public transit.” (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32) Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006: targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. (link)
The Transportation sector targets transportation of both people and goods, such as:
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Passenger vehicles: Increased fuel efficiency, Reflective glazing, Tire pressure, Feebates, Zero Emission Vehicles
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Heavy-duty vehicles: Increased fuel efficiency, Hybrid requirements, Anti-Idling
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Ports: Shore power for ocean-going vessels, Vessel speed, Cargo handling equipment
Chicago
Chicago Climate Action Plan, Transportation mitigation strategies (link):
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Increase transportation options: 30% increase in public transit ridership, expand transit incentive programs, target one million walking and cycling trips per year, increase car share/carpool ridership, support the development of high-speed intercity passenger rail.
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Efficiency and alternative fuels: Improve the efficiency of City of Chicago fleet vehicles, increase the use of alternative fuel sources, and advocate for higher federal fuel efficiency standards.
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Other: Promote transit-oriented development and more efficient freight movement.
New Hampshire
Climate Action Plan 2009: Due to its largely rural character, the actions targeting reduction in vehicle-miles traveled in the New Hampshire Climate Action Plan focus primarily on improving and expanding local and intra-regional bus and rail service as well as the Park-and-Ride infrastructure. Other actions include expanding the state’s walking and cycling infrastructure. (link)
New York City
plaNYC 2007: Improve travel times and bring the entire transportation system into a state of good repair using the following strategies: expand the transit infrastructure, improve service on the existing infrastructure, promote additional modes of transportation such as cycling and ferries, and reduce congestion. (link)
Seattle
Seattle Action Plan 2006: Over 60% of Seattle’s GHG emissions can be linked to transportation emissions, leading it to focus on increasing vehicle efficiency and expanding transportation options for close to one half of its targeted actions. (link)
Action #1: Significantly Increase the Supply of Frequent, Reliable and Convenient Public Transportation
Action #2: Significantly Expand Bicycling and Pedestrian Infrastructure
Action #3: Lead a Regional Partnership to Develop and Implement a Road Pricing System
Action #4: Implement a New Commercial Parking Tax
Action #5: Expand Efforts to Create Compact, Green Urban Neighborhoods
Action #6: Improve the Average Fuel Efficiency of Seattle’s Cars and Trucks
Action #7: Substantially Increase the Use of Biofuels
Action #8: Significantly Reduce Emissions from Diesel Trucks, Trains, and Ships
7. Conserve potable water through efficiency measures and development of alternative water sources.
Link to Environmental Sustainability
Warming temperatures can lead to changes in the number and intensity of rain events; increased drought conditions; increased evaporation rates; and, reductions in fresh water sources such as snow packs, lakes, and rivers. As global warming progresses and the global population increases, water demand is likely to rise, which will impact energy demand because the two are intimately connected. Centralized energy production, particularly biofuel and hydropower, are extremely water intensive. On the flip side, moving water is extremely energy intensive due to its weight. Water and energy are also connected through building systems, where tradeoffs between water efficiency and energy efficiency are regularly incorporated into air conditioning, refrigerators, ice machines, and other mechanical and refrigeration equipment. For additional information, please review the U.S. Global Change Research Program’s 2009 Report “Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States” and the Pacific Institute.
Sample Locations
National
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement: Item 9, “Evaluate opportunities to increase pump efficiency in water and wastewater systems; recover wastewater treatment methane for energy production.” (link)
Austin
Austin Climate Protection Plan 2007: Targets the co-benefits associated with water conservation, energy conservation, and fossil fuel use reduction through actions such as: reducing peak day water use by 1%, instituting landscape irrigation restrictions between 10am and 7pm, offering rebates for water efficient appliances and rainwater harvesting, expanding the municipally-reclaimed water system, and upgrading water efficiency requirements through the plumbing code. (link)
California
California Assembly Bill 32 (CA AB32): Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 targets reducing statewide GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2020. Current activities in the Water sector include: encouraging water recycling and increasing water efficiency both by the end user, in landscape irrigation, and in the municipal water system.
New York City
plaNYC 2007: Protect water quality and ensure adequate supply of potable water using the following strategies: protect water sources through the watershed protection program, reduce citywide water consumption by 60 million gallons/day through efficiency measures, and evaluate new water sources such as reusing municipally treated reclaimed water for greywater purposes (e.g., toilet flushing, irrigation, etc.). (link)
Suggested Additional Reading
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report (link)
Kyoto Protocol (link)
U.S. EPA , 2009 U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report (link)
U.S. Global Change Research Program, “Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States,” 2009 (link)
U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement (link)
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